-
1 types of climates
= climate -
2 южный
прил. south, southern на 40 градусе южной широты геогр. ≈ in latitude 40 degrees South южный полярный круг ≈ Antarctic Circle Южный полюс геогр. ≈ South Pole южное полушарие ≈ the Southern Hemisphere южный берег ≈ south coast южный ветер ≈ south (wind), southerly wind самый южный ≈ the southernmost южный темперамент ≈ southern temperament перен.южн|ый - south, southern*;
~ берег south coast;
~ ветер south wind;
~ климат southern climate;
~ое солнце southern sun;
~ темперамент the southern fire;
~ полюс магнита физ. south-seeking pole of a magnet. -
3 act
1. I1) they decided to (it is your duty to, we must, etc.) act они решили и т. д. действовать /принимать меры/; it is time to act пора делать дело /действовать/; don't talk, act хватит болтать, надо дело делать; he declined to act он отказался принять меры /вмещаться/; be quick (slow, prompt, etc.) to act действовать быстро и т. д.; he is slow to act он медлительный человек, он медленно раскачивается; he was quick to act он сразу же откликнулся2) the pump (the lock, etc.) acts насос и т. д. работает /действует/; don't worry this device will act не бойся, это приспособление будет работать; the brakes wouldn't act тормоза отказали; has the medicine acted? лекарство уже подействовало?3) where could he have learnt to act? где ему удались научиться играть [на сцене]?; children love to act дети любят играть в театр4) she is never sincere, she always act's она никогда не бывает естественной, она всегда играет какую-нибудь роль /притворяется/; stop acting, be serious for once перестань играть /ломать/ комедию /валять дурака/, хоть [на этот] раз будь серьезным2. II1) act in some manner act politely (respectfully, disrespectfully, naturally, decisively, etc.) вести себя /поступать/ вежливо и т. д.; he always acts so foolishly он всегда ведет себя /поступает/ так глупо; you have acted correctly (generously) вы поступили правильно (великодушно); I will hear what he has to say and act accordingly я выслушаю его и приму соответствующие меры; act at some time act at once /immediately/ (the same day, etc.) немедленно и т. д. принимать меры /действовать/2) act in some manner act well (smoothly, automatically, etc.) действовать /работать/ хорошо и т. д.; act at some time the gadget acted immediately приспособление тут же сработало3) act in some manner act injuriously (salubriously, etc.) оказывать /иметь/ вредное и т. д. действие; acids act corrosively кислоты разъедают /оказывают разъедающее действие/; act at some time this poison acts instantaneously этот яд действует мгновенно4) act in some manner act well (wonderfully, convincingly, subtly, etc.) хорошо и т. д. играть (на сцене и т. я.)3. III1) act smb., smth. act a character (the hero, Hamlet, the part of the villain, etc.) играть /исполнять/ роль и т. д.; who will act this (the leading) part? кто будет играть эту (главную) роль?; act smth. act a play (a charade, a fable, a fairy-story, etc.) играть /исполнить, разыгрывать/ пьесу и т. д.2) act smb. act the hero (the perfect fool, the ass, etc.) вести себя как герой и т.д.; he acted the idiot а) он вел себя как дурак, он вел себя по-идиотски; б) он строил из себя идиота; act a part играть роль /разыгрывать/ из себя) кого-л.; she is always acting a part вечно она кого-то из себя строит; she is acting a generous person она изображает /строит/ из себя великодушную особу, она играет в великодушие; she did not feel fear, she was just acting it она не испытывала страха, а просто притворилась /делала вид/, что боится4. XIIIact to do smth. act to win popularity (to catch smb. act attention, to get into smb. act good books, etc.) разыгрывать из себя кого-л., чтобы добиться популярности и т.д; he is merely acting to get your sympathy он просто притворяется, чтобы вызвать у вас сочувствие5. XVI1) act against (for, according /(up)on/, in, etc.) smth. act against smb.'s will (against one's own interests, according to instructions, upon smb.'s suggestion, up to one's reputation, etc.) действовать против чьей-л. воли и т. д.; act in unison действовать согласованно; act in collusion with smb. действовать в сговоре с кем-л.; act on smb.'s orders (on smb.'s advice, etc.) действовать по чьему-л. приказу и т. д.; act with great composure (with caution, etc.) действовать весьма хладнокровно и т. д., act from a sense of duty поступать так, как подсказывает чувство долга; act under compulsion действовать под давлением /по принуждению/; act out of spite поступить назло; don't act from instinct не надо действовать под влитием инстинкта /необдуманно/; act according to your conscience поступай [так], как тебе подсказывает /велит/ совесть; he acted up to his promise он сдержал обещание; he acted in self-defence он оборонился, он действовал так в порядке самообороны; he acted without any thought of the consequences он действовал, не задумываясь о последствиях; act against (for, through, etc.) smb. he will never act against me он никогда не будет действовать в ущерб моим интересам; he acted for me а) он защищал меня (в суде); б) он действовал вместо меня /от моего имени/; he acted through his brother [в этом деле] он действовал через своего брата2) act (up)on smb., smth. the medicine (the drug, the cure, etc.) acts upon me (on the heart, on the bowels, etc.) [это] лекарство и т. д. действует /оказывает действие/ на меня и т. д.; this weather (the man, etc.) acts on my nerves эта погода и т. д. действует мне на нервы; the south (southern climate, mountain air, etc.) acts on me favourably юг и т. д. благотворно действует на меня; acids act on metal corrosively кислоты разъедают металл3) act before (on, in, etc.) smth. act before the camera (on the stage, in a tragedy, etc.) играть /выступать/ перед камерой и т. д.; he acted in many films он снимался /играл/ во многих фильмах; he never acted in vaudeville он никогда не был эстрадным актером; он никогда не выступал в водевилях6. XIX1act like smb. act like a baby (like a fool, like a true friend, like an Othello, like a prima donna, etc.) вести себя как ребенок и т. д.; he is acting like an ostrich он ведет себя трусливо, он прячет голову как страус [под крыло]7. XX1act as smb. act as a consultant (as smb.'s deputy, as a go-between, as a guide, as a secretary, etc.) исполнять обязанности консультанта и т. д., выступать в качестве консультанта и т. д.; he acted as director for a month он замещал директора в течение месяца; act as smth. act as a buffer (as a switch, as a brake, etc.) служить буфером и т.д.; this liquid acts as a conductor [of heat] эта жидкость служит проводником [тепла]; act as a stimulus (as an irritant, as a poison, as an antidote) оказывать стимулирующее действие и т. д., действовать как стимулянт и т. д. -
4 Agriculture
Historically, Portugal's agricultural efficiency, measured in terms of crop yields and animal productivity, has been well below that of other European countries. Agricultural inefficiency is a consequence of Portugal's topography and climate, which varies considerably from north to south and has influenced farm size and farming methods. There are three major agricultural zones: the north, center, and south. The north (the area between the Douro and Minho Rivers, including the district of Trás-os-Montes) is mountainous with a wet (180-249 cm of rainfall/year), moderately cool climate. It contains about 2 million hectares of cultivated land excessively fragmented into tiny (3-5 hectares) family-owned farms, or minifúndios, a consequence of ancient settlement patterns, a strong attachment to the land, and the tradition of subdividing land equally among family members. The farms in the north produce the potatoes and kale that are used to make caldo verde soup, a staple of the Portuguese diet, and the grapes that are used to make vinho verde (green wine), a light sparkling white wine said to aid the digestion of oily and greasy food. Northern farms are too small to benefit from mechanization and their owners too poor to invest in irrigation, chemical fertilizers, or better seeds; hence, agriculture in the north has remained labor intensive, despite efforts to regroup minifúndios to increase farm size and efficiency.The center (roughly between the Douro and the Tagus River) is bisected by the Mondego River, the land to either side of which is some of the most fertile in Portugal and produces irrigated rice, corn, grapes, and forest goods on medium-sized (about 100 hectares) farms under a mixture of owner-cultivation and sharecropping. Portugal's center contains the Estrela Mountains, where sheep raising is common and wool, milk, and cheese are produced, especially mountain cheese ( Queijo da Serra), similar to French brie. In the valley of the Dão River, a full-bodied, fruity wine much like Burgundy is produced. In the southern part of the center, where the climate is dry and soils are poor, stock raising mixes with cereal crop cultivation. In Estremadura, the area north of Lisbon, better soils and even rainfall support intensive agriculture. The small farms of this area produce lemons, strawberries, pears, quinces, peaches, and vegetables. Estremadura also produces red wine at Colares and white wine at Buçelas.The south (Alentejo and Algarve) is a vast rolling plain with a hot arid climate. It contains about 2.6 million hectares of arable land and produces the bulk of Portugal's wheat and barley. It also produces one of Portugal's chief exports, cork, which is made from bark cut from cork oaks at nine-year intervals. There are vast groves of olive trees around the towns of Elvas, Serpa, and Estremoz that provide Portugal's olives. The warm climate of the Algarve (the most southern region of Portugal) is favorable for the growing of oranges, pomegranates, figs, and carobs. Almonds are also produced. Farms in the south, except for the Algarve, are large estates (typically 1,000 hectares or more in size) known as latifúndios, worked by a landless, wage-earning rural work force. After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, these large estates were taken over by the state and turned into collective farms. During the 1990s, as the radicalism of the Revolution moderated, collectivized agriculture was seen as counterproductive, and the nationalized estates were gradually returned to their original owners in exchange for cash payments or small parcels of land for the collective farm workers.Portugal adopted the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) when it joined the European Union (EU) in 1986. The CAP, which is based on the principles of common pricing, EU preferences, and joint financing, has shifted much of Portugal's agricultural decision making to the EU. Under the CAP, cereals and dairy products have experienced declines in prices because these are in chronic surplus within the EU. Alentejo wheat production has become unprofitable because of poor soils. However, rice, tomatoes, sunflower, and safflower seed and potatoes, as well as Portuguese wines, have competed well under the CAP system. -
5 hard
1. adjective1) (firm; solid; not easy to break, scratch etc: The ground is too hard to dig.) duro; sólido2) (not easy to do, learn, solve etc: Is English a hard language to learn?; He is a hard man to please.) difícil3) (not feeling or showing kindness: a hard master.) severo; rudo; seco4) ((of weather) severe: a hard winter.) duro, severo, riguroso5) (having or causing suffering: a hard life; hard times.) duro, difícil6) ((of water) containing many chemical salts and so not easily forming bubbles when soap is added: The water is hard in this part of the country.) dura
2. adverb1) (with great effort: He works very hard; Think hard.) duro, con ahínco2) (with great force; heavily: Don't hit him too hard; It was raining hard.) fuerte, fuertemente3) (with great attention: He stared hard at the man.) fijamente4) (to the full extent; completely: The car turned hard right.) completamente, totalmente•- harden- hardness
- hardship
- hard-and-fast
- hard-back
- hard-boiled
- harddisk
- hard-earned
- hard-headed
- hard-hearted
- hardware
- hard-wearing
- be hard on
- hard at it
- hard done by
- hard lines/luck
- hard of hearing
- a hard time of it
- a hard time
- hard up
hard1 adj1. duro2. difícilhard2 adv1. mucho2. duro / fuertehit him hard! ¡pégale duro!tr[hɑːd]2 (difficult) difícil3 (harsh) severo,-a4 (work) arduo,-a, penoso,-a, agotador,-ra5 figurative use cruel, rudo,-a6 (fight, match) reñido,-a, disputado,-a; (decision) injusto,-a8 (final decision) definitivo,-a, irrevocable; (person) severo,-a, inflexible9 SMALLLINGUISTICS/SMALL fuerte1 (forcibly) fuerte; (diligently) mucho, de firme, concienzudamente, con ahínco\SMALLIDIOMATIC EXPRESSION/SMALLhard of hearing duro,-a de oídoto be hard done by sentirse mal tratado,-a, ser tratado,-a injustamenteto be hard hit by figurative use quedar muy afectado,-a porto be hard on somebody figurative use tratar a alguien con severidad, tratar a alguien con durezato be hard on somebody's heels figurative use pisar los talones a alguiento be hard pushed to do something figurative use verse apurado,-a para realizar algoto be hard up familiar estar sin blancato drive a hard bargain figurative use negociar con durezato have a hard time familiar pasarlo canutas, pasarlo malto take something very hard tomar algo muy a pecho, encajar algo muy malto work hard trabajar muchohard drinker bebedor,-ra empedernido,-ahard evidence pruebas nombre femenino plural definitivashard labour trabajos nombre masculino plural forzadoshard luck mala suertehard ['hɑrd] adv1) forcefully: fuerte, con fuerzathe wind blew hard: el viento sopló fuerte2) strenuously: duro, muchoto work hard: trabajar duro3)to take something hard : tomarse algo muy mal, estar muy afectado por algohard adj1) firm, solid: duro, firme, sólido2) difficult: difícil, arduo3) severe: severo, duroa hard winter: un invierno severo4) unfeeling: insensible, duro5) diligent: diligenteto be a hard worker: ser muy trabajador6)hard liquor : bebidas fpl fuertes7)hard water : agua f duraadj.• arduo, -a adj.• calloso, -a adj.• dificultoso, -a adj.• difícil adj.• duro, -a adj.• endurecido, -a adj.• firme adj.• fuerte adj.• laborioso, -a adj.• peliagudo, -a adj.• recio, -a adj.• rudo, -a adj.• sólido, -a adj.• terco, -a adj.• tieso, -a adj.adv.• apretadamente adv.• difícilmente adv.• duro adv.• mucho adv.• recio adv.• tieso adv.
I hɑːrd, hɑːdadjective -er, -est1)a) (firm, solid) <object/surface> duroto set hard — endurecerse*
to freeze hard — helarse*
b) ( forceful) <push/knock> fuerte2)he's hard to please — es difícil de complacer, es exigente
b) ( severe) <winter/climate/master> duro, severoto give somebody a hard time — hacérselas* pasar mal a alguien
c) (tough, cynical) <person/attitude> duro, insensible3) (concentrated, strenuous)to take a long hard look at something — analizar* seriamente algo
5) (sharp, harsh) <light/voice> fuerte; < expression> duro6)a) ( in strongest forms)hard drugs — drogas fpl duras
hard liquor — bebidas fpl (alcohólicas) fuertes
b) ( Fin)hard currency — divisa f or moneda f fuerte
c) < water> durod) ( Ling) <sound/consonant> fuerte
II
adverb -er, -est1)a) ( with force) <pull/push> con fuerza; < hit> fuerteb) ( strenuously) < work> mucho, duro, duramenteto be hard put o (BrE also) pushed to + inf: you'd be hard put (to it) to find a better doctor — sería difícil encontrar un médico mejor
2) ( heavily) <rain/snow> fuerte, mucho; <pant/breathe> pesadamente3) ( severely)[hɑːd]to be/feel hard done by: she thinks she has been o she feels hard done by — piensa que la han tratado injustamente
1. ADJ(compar harder) (superl hardest)1) (=not soft) [object, substance, cheese, skin] duro; [ground, snow] duro, compacto•
to become or go hard — ponerse duro, endurecerse•
the water is very hard here — aquí el agua es muy dura or tiene mucha cal- be as hard as nails- as hard as a rocknut2) (=harsh, severe) [climate, winter, person] duro, severo; [frost] fuerte; [words, tone] duro, áspero; [expression, eyes, voice] serio, duro; [drink, liquor] fuerte; [drugs] duro; [fact] concreto; [evidence] irrefutable•
a hard blow — (fig) un duro golpe•
to take a long hard look at sth — examinar algo detenidamente•
to be hard on sb — ser muy duro con algn, darle duro a algn (LAm)don't be so hard on him, it's not his fault — no seas tan duro con él, no es culpa suya
aren't you being a bit hard on yourself? — ¿no estás siendo un poco duro contigo mismo?
- be as hard as nailsfeeling3) (=strenuous, tough) [work, day] duro; [fight, match] muy reñidophew, that was hard work! — ¡uf!, ¡ha costado lo suyo!
coping with three babies is very hard work — tres bebés dan mucha tarea or mucho trabajo, arreglárselas con tres bebés es una dura or ardua tarea
it's hard work getting her to talk about herself — cuesta mucho or resulta muy trabajoso hacerla hablar sobre sí misma
4) (=difficult) [exam, decision, choice] difícilto be hard to do: it's hard to study on your own — es difícil estudiar por tu cuenta
I find it hard to believe that... — me cuesta (trabajo) creer que...
bargain, play 3., 4)to be hard to please — ser muy exigente or quisquilloso
5) (=tough, unpleasant) [life, times] duroit's a hard life! — ¡qué vida más dura!
those were hard times to live in — aquellos eran tiempos duros, la vida era dura en aquellos tiempos
- take a hard line against/over sthgoing, hard-line, hard-linerhard lines! — ¡qué mala suerte!, ¡qué mala pata! *
6) (=forceful) [push, tug, kick] fuerte7) (Phon, Ling) [sound] fuerte; [consonant] oclusivo2. ADV(compar harder) (superl hardest)1) (=with a lot of effort) [work] duro, mucho; [study] muchohe had worked hard all his life — había trabajado duro or mucho toda su vida
he works very hard — trabaja muy duro, trabaja mucho
he was hard at work in the garden — estaba trabajando afanosamente or con ahínco en el jardín
•
he was breathing hard — respiraba con dificultad•
we're saving hard for our holidays — estamos ahorrando todo lo que podemos para las vacaciones, estamos ahorrando al máximo para las vacaciones•
to try hard, she always tries hard — siempre se esfuerza muchoI can't do it, no matter how hard I try — no puedo hacerlo, por mucho que lo intente
to be hard at it —
Bill was hard at it in the garden * — Bill se estaba empleando a fondo en el jardín, Bill estaba dándole duro al jardín *
2) (=with force) [hit] fuerte, duro; [pull, push, blow] con fuerza; [snow, rain] fuerte, mucho•
the government decided to clamp down hard on terrorism — el gobierno decidió tomar medidas duras contra el terrorismo•
she was feeling hard done by — pensaba que la habían tratado injustamenteto hit sb hard — (fig) ser un duro golpe para algn
California has been (particularly) hard hit by the crisis — California (en particular) se ha visto seriamente afectada por la crisis
•
I would be hard pushed or put to think of another plan — me resultaría difícil pensar en otro planwe'll be hard pushed or put to finish this tonight! — ¡nos va a ser difícil terminar esto esta noche!
•
to take sth hard — tomarse algo muy mal *he took it pretty hard — se lo tomó muy mal, fue un duro golpe para él, le golpeó mucho (LAm)
•
to be hard up * — estar pelado *, no tener un duro (Sp) *hard-pressedto be hard up for sth — estar falto or escaso de algo
3) (=solid)•
to freeze hard — quedarse congelado4) (=intently) [listen] atentamente; [concentrate] al máximo•
to look hard (at sth) — fijarse mucho (en algo)•
think hard before you make a decision — piénsalo muy bien antes de tomar una decisiónI thought hard but I couldn't remember his name — por más que pensé or por más vueltas que le di no pude recordar su nombre
5) (=sharply)6) (=closely)•
hard behind sth — justo detrás de algoI hurried upstairs with my sister hard behind me — subí las escaleras corriendo con mi hermana que venía justo detrás
heelthe launch of the book followed hard upon the success of the film — el lanzamiento del libro se produjo justo después del éxito de la película
3.CPDhard centre, hard center (US) N — relleno m duro
hard cider (US) N — sidra f
hard copy N — (Comput) copia f impresa
hard-corethe hard core N — (=intransigents) los incondicionales, el núcleo duro
hard court N — (Tennis) cancha f (de tenis) de cemento, pista f (de tenis) de cemento
hard currency N — moneda f fuerte, divisa f fuerte
hard disk N — (Comput) disco m duro
hard goods NPL — productos mpl no perecederos
hard hat N — (=riding hat) gorra f de montar; [of construction worker] casco m; (=construction worker) albañil mf
hard landing N — aterrizaje m duro
the hard left N — (esp Brit) la extrema izquierda, la izquierda radical
hard luck N — mala suerte f
•
to be hard luck on sb, it was hard luck on him — tuvo mala suertehard luck! — ¡(qué) mala suerte!
hard palate N — paladar m
the hard right N — (esp Brit) la extrema derecha, la derecha radical
hard rock N — (Mus) rock m duro
hard sell tactics — táctica fsing de venta agresiva
hard sell techniques — técnicas fpl de venta agresiva
hard shoulder N — (Brit) (Aut) arcén m, hombrillo m
hard stuff * N — (=alcohol) alcohol m duro, bebidas fpl fuertes; (=drugs) droga f dura
hard top N — (=car) coche m no descapotable; (=car roof) techo m rígido
hard water N — agua f dura, agua f con mucha cal
* * *
I [hɑːrd, hɑːd]adjective -er, -est1)a) (firm, solid) <object/surface> duroto set hard — endurecerse*
to freeze hard — helarse*
b) ( forceful) <push/knock> fuerte2)he's hard to please — es difícil de complacer, es exigente
b) ( severe) <winter/climate/master> duro, severoto give somebody a hard time — hacérselas* pasar mal a alguien
c) (tough, cynical) <person/attitude> duro, insensible3) (concentrated, strenuous)to take a long hard look at something — analizar* seriamente algo
5) (sharp, harsh) <light/voice> fuerte; < expression> duro6)a) ( in strongest forms)hard drugs — drogas fpl duras
hard liquor — bebidas fpl (alcohólicas) fuertes
b) ( Fin)hard currency — divisa f or moneda f fuerte
c) < water> durod) ( Ling) <sound/consonant> fuerte
II
adverb -er, -est1)a) ( with force) <pull/push> con fuerza; < hit> fuerteb) ( strenuously) < work> mucho, duro, duramenteto be hard put o (BrE also) pushed to + inf: you'd be hard put (to it) to find a better doctor — sería difícil encontrar un médico mejor
2) ( heavily) <rain/snow> fuerte, mucho; <pant/breathe> pesadamente3) ( severely)to be/feel hard done by: she thinks she has been o she feels hard done by — piensa que la han tratado injustamente
-
6 Introduction
Portugal is a small Western European nation with a large, distinctive past replete with both triumph and tragedy. One of the continent's oldest nation-states, Portugal has frontiers that are essentially unchanged since the late 14th century. The country's unique character and 850-year history as an independent state present several curious paradoxes. As of 1974, when much of the remainder of the Portuguese overseas empire was decolonized, Portuguese society appeared to be the most ethnically homogeneous of the two Iberian states and of much of Europe. Yet, Portuguese society had received, over the course of 2,000 years, infusions of other ethnic groups in invasions and immigration: Phoenicians, Greeks, Celts, Romans, Suevi, Visigoths, Muslims (Arab and Berber), Jews, Italians, Flemings, Burgundian French, black Africans, and Asians. Indeed, Portugal has been a crossroads, despite its relative isolation in the western corner of the Iberian Peninsula, between the West and North Africa, Tropical Africa, and Asia and America. Since 1974, Portugal's society has become less homogeneous, as there has been significant immigration of former subjects from its erstwhile overseas empire.Other paradoxes should be noted as well. Although Portugal is sometimes confused with Spain or things Spanish, its very national independence and national culture depend on being different from Spain and Spaniards. Today, Portugal's independence may be taken for granted. Since 1140, except for 1580-1640 when it was ruled by Philippine Spain, Portugal has been a sovereign state. Nevertheless, a recurring theme of the nation's history is cycles of anxiety and despair that its freedom as a nation is at risk. There is a paradox, too, about Portugal's overseas empire(s), which lasted half a millennium (1415-1975): after 1822, when Brazil achieved independence from Portugal, most of the Portuguese who emigrated overseas never set foot in their overseas empire, but preferred to immigrate to Brazil or to other countries in North or South America or Europe, where established Portuguese overseas communities existed.Portugal was a world power during the period 1415-1550, the era of the Discoveries, expansion, and early empire, and since then the Portuguese have experienced periods of decline, decadence, and rejuvenation. Despite the fact that Portugal slipped to the rank of a third- or fourth-rate power after 1580, it and its people can claim rightfully an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions that assure their place both in world and Western history. These distinctions should be kept in mind while acknowledging that, for more than 400 years, Portugal has generally lagged behind the rest of Western Europe, although not Southern Europe, in social and economic developments and has remained behind even its only neighbor and sometime nemesis, Spain.Portugal's pioneering role in the Discoveries and exploration era of the 15th and 16th centuries is well known. Often noted, too, is the Portuguese role in the art and science of maritime navigation through the efforts of early navigators, mapmakers, seamen, and fishermen. What are often forgotten are the country's slender base of resources, its small population largely of rural peasants, and, until recently, its occupation of only 16 percent of the Iberian Peninsula. As of 1139—10, when Portugal emerged first as an independent monarchy, and eventually a sovereign nation-state, England and France had not achieved this status. The Portuguese were the first in the Iberian Peninsula to expel the Muslim invaders from their portion of the peninsula, achieving this by 1250, more than 200 years before Castile managed to do the same (1492).Other distinctions may be noted. Portugal conquered the first overseas empire beyond the Mediterranean in the early modern era and established the first plantation system based on slave labor. Portugal's empire was the first to be colonized and the last to be decolonized in the 20th century. With so much of its scattered, seaborne empire dependent upon the safety and seaworthiness of shipping, Portugal was a pioneer in initiating marine insurance, a practice that is taken for granted today. During the time of Pombaline Portugal (1750-77), Portugal was the first state to organize and hold an industrial trade fair. In distinctive political and governmental developments, Portugal's record is more mixed, and this fact suggests that maintaining a government with a functioning rule of law and a pluralist, representative democracy has not been an easy matter in a country that for so long has been one of the poorest and least educated in the West. Portugal's First Republic (1910-26), only the third republic in a largely monarchist Europe (after France and Switzerland), was Western Europe's most unstable parliamentary system in the 20th century. Finally, the authoritarian Estado Novo or "New State" (1926-74) was the longest surviving authoritarian system in modern Western Europe. When Portugal departed from its overseas empire in 1974-75, the descendants, in effect, of Prince Henry the Navigator were leaving the West's oldest empire.Portugal's individuality is based mainly on its long history of distinc-tiveness, its intense determination to use any means — alliance, diplomacy, defense, trade, or empire—to be a sovereign state, independent of Spain, and on its national pride in the Portuguese language. Another master factor in Portuguese affairs deserves mention. The country's politics and government have been influenced not only by intellectual currents from the Atlantic but also through Spain from Europe, which brought new political ideas and institutions and novel technologies. Given the weight of empire in Portugal's past, it is not surprising that public affairs have been hostage to a degree to what happened in her overseas empire. Most important have been domestic responses to imperial affairs during both imperial and internal crises since 1415, which have continued to the mid-1970s and beyond. One of the most important themes of Portuguese history, and one oddly neglected by not a few histories, is that every major political crisis and fundamental change in the system—in other words, revolution—since 1415 has been intimately connected with a related imperial crisis. The respective dates of these historical crises are: 1437, 1495, 1578-80, 1640, 1820-22, 1890, 1910, 1926-30, 1961, and 1974. The reader will find greater detail on each crisis in historical context in the history section of this introduction and in relevant entries.LAND AND PEOPLEThe Republic of Portugal is located on the western edge of the Iberian Peninsula. A major geographical dividing line is the Tagus River: Portugal north of it has an Atlantic orientation; the country to the south of it has a Mediterranean orientation. There is little physical evidence that Portugal is clearly geographically distinct from Spain, and there is no major natural barrier between the two countries along more than 1,214 kilometers (755 miles) of the Luso-Spanish frontier. In climate, Portugal has a number of microclimates similar to the microclimates of Galicia, Estremadura, and Andalusia in neighboring Spain. North of the Tagus, in general, there is an Atlantic-type climate with higher rainfall, cold winters, and some snow in the mountainous areas. South of the Tagus is a more Mediterranean climate, with hot, dry, often rainless summers and cool, wet winters. Lisbon, the capital, which has a fifth of the country's population living in its region, has an average annual mean temperature about 16° C (60° F).For a small country with an area of 92,345 square kilometers (35,580 square miles, including the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and the Madeiras), which is about the size of the state of Indiana in the United States, Portugal has a remarkable diversity of regional topography and scenery. In some respects, Portugal resembles an island within the peninsula, embodying a unique fusion of European and non-European cultures, akin to Spain yet apart. Its geography is a study in contrasts, from the flat, sandy coastal plain, in some places unusually wide for Europe, to the mountainous Beira districts or provinces north of the Tagus, to the snow-capped mountain range of the Estrela, with its unique ski area, to the rocky, barren, remote Trás-os-Montes district bordering Spain. There are extensive forests in central and northern Portugal that contrast with the flat, almost Kansas-like plains of the wheat belt in the Alentejo district. There is also the unique Algarve district, isolated somewhat from the Alentejo district by a mountain range, with a microclimate, topography, and vegetation that resemble closely those of North Africa.Although Portugal is small, just 563 kilometers (337 miles) long and from 129 to 209 kilometers (80 to 125 miles) wide, it is strategically located on transportation and communication routes between Europe and North Africa, and the Americas and Europe. Geographical location is one key to the long history of Portugal's three overseas empires, which stretched once from Morocco to the Moluccas and from lonely Sagres at Cape St. Vincent to Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. It is essential to emphasize the identity of its neighbors: on the north and east Portugal is bounded by Spain, its only neighbor, and by the Atlantic Ocean on the south and west. Portugal is the westernmost country of Western Europe, and its shape resembles a face, with Lisbon below the nose, staring into theAtlantic. No part of Portugal touches the Mediterranean, and its Atlantic orientation has been a response in part to turning its back on Castile and Léon (later Spain) and exploring, traveling, and trading or working in lands beyond the peninsula. Portugal was the pioneering nation in the Atlantic-born European discoveries during the Renaissance, and its diplomatic and trade relations have been dominated by countries that have been Atlantic powers as well: Spain; England (Britain since 1707); France; Brazil, once its greatest colony; and the United States.Today Portugal and its Atlantic islands have a population of roughly 10 million people. While ethnic homogeneity has been characteristic of it in recent history, Portugal's population over the centuries has seen an infusion of non-Portuguese ethnic groups from various parts of Europe, the Middle East, and Africa. Between 1500 and 1800, a significant population of black Africans, brought in as slaves, was absorbed in the population. And since 1950, a population of Cape Verdeans, who worked in menial labor, has resided in Portugal. With the influx of African, Goan, and Timorese refugees and exiles from the empire—as many as three quarters of a million retornados ("returned ones" or immigrants from the former empire) entered Portugal in 1974 and 1975—there has been greater ethnic diversity in the Portuguese population. In 2002, there were 239,113 immigrants legally residing in Portugal: 108,132 from Africa; 24,806 from Brazil; 15,906 from Britain; 14,617 from Spain; and 11,877 from Germany. In addition, about 200,000 immigrants are living in Portugal from eastern Europe, mainly from Ukraine. The growth of Portugal's population is reflected in the following statistics:1527 1,200,000 (estimate only)1768 2,400,000 (estimate only)1864 4,287,000 first census1890 5,049,7001900 5,423,0001911 5,960,0001930 6,826,0001940 7,185,1431950 8,510,0001960 8,889,0001970 8,668,000* note decrease1980 9,833,0001991 9,862,5401996 9,934,1002006 10,642,8362010 10,710,000 (estimated) -
7 affect
̈ɪəˈfekt I
1. сущ.;
псих. аффект The terms 'affect' and 'affective' denote the emotional-conative aspect of all mental activity. ≈ Термины 'аффект' и 'аффективный' выражают эмоционально-конативный аспект ментальной деятельности в целом. Syn: emotion
2. гл.
1) подвергать физическому воздействию, давлению
2) волновать, трогать, задевать, затрагивать, оказывать влияние( о мыслях, чувствах и т.д.) to affect smb. deeply, profoundly, strongly ≈ сильно повлиять на кого-л. Syn: influence
2., move
2., touch
2.
3) мед. поражать( о болезни) affected by influenza ≈ подхвативший грипп
4) в пасс. форме приписывать, предназначать, назначать (для какой-л. деятельности) affected to the promotion of science and learning ≈ назначенный на дела по продвижению вопросов науки и образования Syn: allot, attribute
2. II гл.
1) притворяться, делать вид, прикидываться
2) любить, предпочитать что-л. Syn: like, love
3) (о растениях, животных) быть распространенными (где-л.), обитать( где-л.) Syn: haunt, inhabit
4) иметь предрасположенность, тенденцию (к какому-либо типу развития) (о предметах, явлениях) Any body affects some regular shape. ≈ Любое физическое тело стремится принять какую-то определенную форму.(психологическое) аффект (воз) действовать;
влиять;
- the climate has *ed his health этот климат повлиял на его здоровье;
- to * public opinion оказать влияние на общественное мнение;
- it *s me personally это имеет ко мне прямое отношение, это касается меня лично волновать, трогать;
- the news *ed him greatly это известие на него сильно подействовало;
- to * smb. to tears растрогать кого-л до слез;
- he was not *ed by the play пьеса его не тронула, пьеса оставила его равнодушным вредить, наносить ущерб;
плохо отражаться, задевать;
- to * smb.'s interests задевать чьи-л интересы;
- smoking *s health курить вредно для здоровья (медицина) поражать;
- to * smb.'s heart подействовать кому-л на сердце;
отразиться на чьем-л сердце;
- smb.'s lungs are *ed затронуты легкие притворяться, прикидываться;
делать вид, принимать вид;
- to * ignorance притворяться незнающим;
- he *ed illness not to go to work он симулировал болезнь, чтобы не идти на работу;
- to * composure напускать на себя показное спокойствие;
- to * the freethinker изображать из себя вольнодумца;
- he *ed not to hear me он сделал вид, что не слышал меня имитировать, копировать, подражать;
- to * a Southern accent говорить с нарочитым южным акцентом часто употреблять: любить;
- to * loud neckties любить яркие галстуки;
- she *s old furniture она увлекается старинной мебелью;
- he *s carelessness in dress он одевается нарочито небрежно;
- he *s long words that few people can understand он щеголяет длинными словами, которые мало кто понимает принимать форму, вид;
- drops of every fluid * a round figure капли любой жидкости принимают округлую форму (редкое) нуждаться в определенных условиях;
- rice *s moist land рису нужна влажная почва населять, обитать;
- lions * Africa львы обитают в Африке;
- moss *s the northern slopes мох предпочитает северные склоныaffect психол. аффект ~ влиять ~ воздействовать ~ вредить ~ действовать (на кого-л.) ;
воздействовать, влиять ~ задевать, затрагивать;
to affect the interest затрагивать интересы;
to affect the character порочить репутацию ~ любить, предпочитать (что-л.) ~ наносить ущерб ~ поражать (о болезни) ;
affected by cold простуженный ~ притворяться, делать вид, прикидываться;
to affect ignorance прикидываться незнающим ~ трогать, волновать;
the news affected him известие взволновало его~ притворяться, делать вид, прикидываться;
to affect ignorance прикидываться незнающим~ задевать, затрагивать;
to affect the interest затрагивать интересы;
to affect the character порочить репутацию~ задевать, затрагивать;
to affect the interest затрагивать интересы;
to affect the character порочить репутацию~ поражать (о болезни) ;
affected by cold простуженный~ трогать, волновать;
the news affected him известие взволновало его -
8 affect
I1. [ʹæfekt] n психол.2. [əʹfekt] v1. (воз)действовать (на что-л.); влиятьthe climate has affected his health - этот климат (вредно) повлиял на его здоровье
to affect public opinion [smb.'s resolution, smb.'s choice] - оказать влияние на общественное мнение [на чьё-л. решение, на чей-л. выбор]
it affects me personally - это имеет ко мне прямое отношение, это касается меня лично
2. волновать, трогатьthe news [smb.'s words] affected him greatly - это известие [чьи-л. слова] на него сильно подействовало [подействовали]
to affect smb. to tears - растрогать кого-л. до слёз
he was not affected by the play - пьеса его не тронула, пьеса оставила его равнодушным
3. вредить, наносить ущерб; плохо отражаться, задеватьto affect smb.'s interests - задевать чьи-л. интересы
4. мед. поражатьto affect smb.'s heart [eye, lungs] - подействовать кому-л. на сердце [глаза, лёгкие]; отразиться на чьём-л. сердце [чьих-л. глазах, лёгких]
II [əʹfekt] vsmb.'s lungs [heart, liver] are [is] affected - затронуты лёгкие [-о сердце, -а печень]
1. 1) притворяться, прикидываться; делать вид, принимать видto affect ignorance [indifference] - притворяться незнающим [безразличным]
he affected illness not to go to work - он симулировал болезнь, чтобы не идти на работу
he affected not to hear me - он сделал вид, что не слышал меня
2) имитировать, копировать, подражать2. часто употреблять; любить (пользоваться чем-л.)to affect loud neckties - любить /носить/ яркие /броские/ галстуки
he affects long words that few people can understand - он щеголяет длинными словами, которые мало кто понимает
3. принимать форму, видdrops of every fluid affect a round figure - капли любой жидкости принимают округлую форму
4. редк. нуждаться в определённых условиях ( о животных и растениях)5. населять, обитать ( о животных и растениях)moss affects the northern slopes - мох предпочитает северные склоны /чаще растёт на северных склонах/
-
9 SCAS
1) Техника: stability and control augmentation system2) Метеорология: Spatial Climate Analysis Service3) Астрономия: Southern Cross Astronomical Society4) Ветеринария: Society for Companion Animal Studies5) Сокращение: Site Chemical Agent Detection System, Stability & Control Augmentation System6) Университет: South Carolina Academy of Science7) Образование: School of Career and Applied Studies8) Программирование: Scan String -
10 SPARC
1) Компьютерная техника: Sun Processor Allowing Remote Capture, Sunos Pipeline Accelerated Risc Computer3) Военный термин: Space Program Analysis and Review Council, support planning analysis, reporting, and REPORTER, radar equipment providing omnidirectional reporting of targets at extended ranges, support planning analysis, reporting, and control4) Телекоммуникации: Scalable Performance Architecture5) Сокращение: Space Air Relay Communications, Standards, Planning, And Requirements Committee, Scalar Processor Architecture6) Университет: Scholarly Publishing And Academic Resources Coalition, Southern Plains Agricultural Research Center7) Вычислительная техника: Standard Planning And Requirement Committee (ANSI, organization), Scalable Processor ARChitecture (Sun)8) Деловая лексика: Support Personnel Accountability Report Card9) Образование: School Parent And Reading Connection10) Сетевые технологии: архитектура процессоров с изменяемой вычислительной мощностью, наращиваемая архитектура процессоров11) Океанография: Stratospheric Processes and their Role in Climate12) Расширение файла: Scalable Processor Architecture, Sun's Palo Alto Research Center13) Молекулярная биология: Secreted Protein Acidic and Rich in Cysteine -
11 monsoon
[mɒn'suːn]nome monsone m.* * *[mon'su:n]1) (a wind that blows in Southern Asia, from the south-west in summer, from the northeast in winter.) monsone2) (the rainy season caused by the southwest monsoon.) monsone* * *monsoon /mɒnˈsu:n/n.1 monsone2 (fig.) diluvio; pioggia torrenziale● monsoon climate, clima monsonico □ monsoon forest, foresta monsonica □ monsoon low, bassa monsonicamonsoonala.monsonico.* * *[mɒn'suːn]nome monsone m. -
12 affect
1. n психол. аффект2. v действовать; влиять3. v волновать, трогать4. v вредить, наносить ущерб; плохо отражаться, задевать5. v мед. поражать6. v притворяться, прикидываться; делать вид, принимать видhe affected illness not to go to work — он симулировал болезнь, чтобы не идти на работу
7. v имитировать, копировать, подражать8. v часто употреблять; любить9. v принимать форму, вид10. v редк. нуждаться в определённых условиях11. v населять, обитатьСинонимический ряд:1. assume (verb) act; adopt; assume; bluff; counterfeit; fake; feign; pose; pretend; put on; sham; simulate2. attack (verb) attack; grip; seize; strike3. frequent (verb) frequent; hang around; hang out; haunt; resort4. impress (verb) carry; hit; impact; impress; inspire; move; overcome; pierce; stir; tear; touch5. influence (verb) act upon; alter; change; concern; get; influence; modify; sway; transformАнтонимический ряд:eschew; repel; repudiate; shun -
13 hot
1. a горячий, жаркийburning hot — обжигающий; обжигающе горячий
I like my tea hot — я люблю, чтобы чай был горячий
to make hot — нагревать; разогревать
2. a тех. накалённый, перегретыйhot snare — раскалённая петля, прижигательная петля
3. a горячий, страстныйhot anger — ярость, бешенство
4. a разгорячённый, возбуждённый; раздражённый5. a страстно увлекающийся6. a в состоянии творческого подъёма, вдохновенияhot dog! — ай да он!; вот это да!; вот это здорово!
7. a горячий, напряжённыйhot battle — жаркий бой, ожесточённое сражение
in the hot test part of the battle — в самом огне ; в разгар боя
8. a спорный, вызывающий ожесточённые споры; жгучий, злободневныйhot pepper — острый или жгучий перец, перец стручковый
9. a свежий, недавний; только что полученный или прибывшийhot copy — последнее сообщение, сенсационное известие
hot tip — сведения из первых рук, самая свежая информация
hot from the press — только что отпечатанный; свеженький
10. a преследующий, идущий по пятам11. a разг. близкий к целиyou are getting hot — вы начинаете догадываться, вы приближаетесь к цели ;
it was so hot I took my coat off — было так жарко, что я снял пиджак
12. a острый, пряный,13. a жгучий14. a яркий, резкий, кричащий15. a сладострастный, похотливый, чувственный16. a скабрёзный, похабныйhot dancer — танцовщица в притоне; исполнительница непристойных танцев
17. a возбуждающий, волнующий, страстный18. a физ. высокорадиоактивныйhot laboratory — «горячая» лаборатория, лаборатория для исследования высокоактивных веществ
19. a сл. скоростной, высокоскоростной20. a постояннодействующий, поддерживаемый в постоянной готовности21. a сл. украденный, незаконно приобретённый или хранимый; контрабандныйhot cockles — детская или деревенская игра «жучок»
22. a сл. усиленно разыскиваемый полицией; скрывающийся от правосудияthe hot test criminal in town — преступник, чьё имя стоит первым среди разыскиваемых в городе
23. a сл. отличный, замечательный; привлекательныйnot so hot — так себе, не ахти какой
24. a сл. счастливый, удачный25. a сл. пользующийся успехом, популярный26. a сл. модный, быстро раскупаемый, ходовой27. a сл. смешной, нелепый28. a сл. невероятный, невозможный29. adv горячо, жаркоit is infernally hot — чертовски жарко, адская жара
30. adv горячо, страстно31. v разг. разогревать, подогревать, нагреватьhot up — разогревать, нагревать
32. v разг. разжигать, раздувать; усиливать33. v разг. оживлять, вливать новую жизньСинонимический ряд:1. angry (adj.) agitated; angry; excitable; furious; indignant; irascible; passionate; vehement; violent2. ardent (adj.) ardent; baking; blistering; boiling; broiling; burning; fiery; flaming; heated; red-hot; scalding; scorching; sizzling; sultry; sweltering; sweltry; torrid; warm; white-hot3. charged (adj.) charged; electrified; live4. contraband (adj.) banned; contraband5. feverish (adj.) fevered; feverish; flushed; pyretic6. lustful (adj.) aroused; concupiscent; goatish; lascivious; libidinous; lickerish; lustful; prurient; ruttish; rutty; satyric; sensual7. marvelous (adj.) divine; dreamy; glorious; groovy; hunky-dory; marvelous; nifty; peachy; ripping; sensational; super; swell; terrific; wonderful8. spicy (adj.) acrid; biting; peppery; piquant; pungent; sharp; spicy; strongАнтонимический ряд:apathetic; biting; bland; bleak; calm; chilling; chilly; cold; cool; dead; distant; freezing; frigid; indifferent; insensitive; rigid
См. также в других словарях:
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